3D printed guns are a hot-button issue in the additive manufacturing industry. Recent interest has been driven by Chicago’s lawsuit against Glock and President Biden’s creation of a new Task Force to tackle 3D printed firearms. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) and the Department of Justice (DoJ) are also ramping up efforts to combat 3D printable machine gun converters.
We spoke to Dr. Yannick Veilleux-Lepage for insights into devices that are “awful but lawful” in the US and how 3D printed weapons appeal to right-wing extremists who wish to “seize the means of political violence.”
An Assistant Professor at Royal Military College of Canada, Dr. Veilleux-Lepage’s research covers terrorism, political violence, and the misuse of emerging technology. He has written on the evolving tactics of extremist groups ranging from vehicle ramming, non-state drone use, Islamic State’s social media strategy, and most recently was published in West Point’s CTC Sentinel Journal. The article, Printing Terror: An Empirical Overview of the Use of 3D-Printed Firearms by Right-Wing Extremists, documents the decade-long growth of 3D printed guns across the globe.
Anecdotal evidence suggests the additive manufacturing industry is engaging seriously with the issues. For example, the 2024 edition of the AMUG Conference – the most respected forum in the industry – included a panel by the AFT’s Firearms and Ammunition Technology Division (FATD).
However, the debate surrounding 3D printed guns is far from settled. In a recent interview with 3D Printing Industry, firearms advocate Matthew Larosiere argued that 3D printed machine gun converters are protected under the US Constitution. He downplayed the impact of 3D printing on gun violence in America, calling the Glock lawsuit flawed and “fundamentally unserious.”
Why 3D print a gun?
Dr. Veilleux-Lepage’s West Point research analyzed 35 cases where far-right extremists acquired, manufactured, or attempted to make 3D printed guns. “The number is now up to 42, which is staggering,” Dr. Veilleux-Lepage added.
According to the international terrorism expert, the appeal of 3D printed firearms for the right-wing community is often ideological. These weapons are seen as symbols of defiance against state control. This concept resonates deeply within extremist circles where the allure of self-sufficiency and anti-regulation is strong.
He noted that “the act of choosing a 3D printed firearm is driven by ideology as opposed to necessity.” This symbolic act mirrors other common extremist behaviors, such as decorating or naming weapons, which imbue them with cultural and ideological significance.
The power of ideology may hold greater weight than reality; the concept of Stochastic Terrorism posits that formal organizational structures are vulnerable to infiltration and arrest. So-called lone-wolf operators can avoid this fate however, a mechanism of radicalization and subsequent enabling of action is required. Arguably, 3D printing can fulfill this enablement. Groups utilizing stochastic terrorism may seek to destabilize society or create circumstances agreeable to their extremist ends, for example, the establishment of an ethno-state.
Such groups may value horrific real-life proof of concept. The case of Stephen Balliet, who carried out the 2019 Halle synagogue shooting in Germany using a homemade gun, is telling. He listed four reasons for the attack in his manifesto. Three were related to anti-Semitism, while the fourth was to prove the viability of improvised firearms in a “live testing.” This reflects the ideological allure of 3D printing to bypass state regulations.
It should be noted that a fully 3D printed gun was not used in the Halle attack. The improvised weapons included 3D printed components, such as a trigger clip, torch barrel attachment, and shotgun shell holder. These were non-critical to the operation of the firearms, and are readily available online.
Beyond individual extremists, formal terrorist and anti-establishment groups have also adopted 3D printing. According to Dr. Veilleux-Lepage, dissident republican groups in Northern Ireland have experimented with 3D printed firearms. Elsewhere, anti-junta rebels in Myanmar have adopted the technology.
Unlike far-right activists, these groups generally resort to 3D printing out of necessity, as they are otherwise unable to access weaponry to further their cause.
3D printed firearm community: a radicalization pipeline?
The 3D printed firearm community is diverse and includes “people that are extremely liberal.” Members range from libertarians and survivalists to vocal trans-self-defense activists. “The 3D printed firearm community is not a far-right community,” says Dr. Veilleux-Lepage, “however, it is adjacent to the far-right online ecosystem.” This proximity creates a permeable boundary, allowing extremist ideas to spread and potentially influence those who may not originally hold these views.
He added that the community is very susceptible to exposure to white supremacist, far-right, anti-democratic, and anti-LGBTQ ideologies. This can foster a radicalization pipeline. Extremists often exploit common interests, such as a shared passion for open-source technology and DIY culture, as entry points to introduce and spread more nefarious ideas online.
Dr. Veilleux-Lepage noted that 3D printed firearm enthusiasts are highly active on X (formerly Twitter), YouTube, Odyssee, Reddit, and encrypted messaging apps such as Rocket.Chat and Element. The community has also established dedicated Discord servers and Reddit subreddits which serve as breeding grounds for the spread of extremist rhetoric and ideologies. These platforms can exacerbate Stochastic Terrorism and contribute to acts of political violence linked to 3D printed firearms.
Additionally, Dr. Veilleux-Lepage believes 3D printing is significantly lowering barriers to gun access. While criminals can obtain firearms in many ways, 3D printing has “democratized” this process.
A key driver of this accessibility is the active online community, which provides detailed instructions and support for individuals looking to build their own guns. This poses challenges for countries with stricter regulations, allowing their citizens to “access privately made firearms.”
He compared this to the early days of file-sharing platforms like Napster and LimeWire, where content created in jurisdictions with more lenient regulations spread rapidly around the world. “Once these online communities come up with new designs, new procedures, and new tactics, these are not geographically bound to the United States,” he explained. This poses challenges for other countries as it is “very hard to stop this content from being spread elsewhere.”
As such, nations outside the US have taken more hard-line action to address the proliferation of 3D printed firearms. Singapore, for example, has outlawed the possession of digital files used to 3D print guns.
Canada introduced legislation allowing certain firearm components, such as barrels and handgun slides, to only be imported by individuals holding a valid firearm license. It also criminalized the possession of 3D printed gun files if there is intent to manufacture a firearm. However, simply having the files without evidence of intent is not illegal.
Dr. Veilleux-Lepage added that the United Kingdom has used the 2000 counter-terrorism legislation to charge individuals when an ideological motive is present. In these instances, 3D printing files are viewed as “material support for terrorism.”
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Are 3D printed guns legal?
Dr. Veilleux-Lepage called the production of 3D printed guns “awful but lawful” in the US. Here, the private manufacturing of firearms, including 3D printing unserialized weapons, is legal, provided they are not transferred afterwards and the maker is not prohibited from owning guns.
In particular, the US Gun Control Act (GCA) of 1968 established licensing requirements for the sale and transfer of firearms. According to the ATF, individuals or entities that manufacture firearms with the intent to profit from their sale or distribution must obtain and maintain a Federal Firearms License.
3D printed machine gun converters, commonly known as auto sears, are classified as machine guns by the ATF, making them illegal. This stems from the National Firearms Act (NFA) of 1934, which defined fully automatic firearms as “dangerous and unusual.” The Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986 prohibited civilian ownership of machine guns manufactured after May 19, 1986.
3D printed gun silencers are also regulated under the NFA and are defined as “firearms” by the GCA. They are legal to own and use, provided they are registered with the ATF.
Pro-3D printed gun advocates challenge these regulations, invoking constitutional protections and the “right to bear arms.” Larosiere argued this extends prima facie “to all arms and accoutrement.” He added that any restrictions to 3D printed machine gun converters are not derived from American legal texts, history, or tradition, and are promoted by “milquetoast gun owners.”
Dr. Veilleux-Lepage highlighted the significance of the First Amendment angle. He pointed to Bernstein v. United States Department of Justice, a 1996 US Court of Appeals case that ruled computer code is a form of speech protected by the First Amendment. “There’s First Amendment protection behind computer codes, and 3D printed firearm files are nothing but computer codes,” he added.
In 2015 Defense Distributed, the creator of the “liberator” 3D printed gun, challenged the US State Department‘s claims that it violated International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR). Headed by Cody Wilson, the company argued that the 3D printed gun files are a form of free speech, and restricting their online distribution was unconstitutional censorship. In 2018, the State Department agreed to settle the case, allowing Defense Distributed to repost the files under a federal license.
“Design against crime”: combating the spread of 3D printed guns
Dr. Veilleux-Lepage discussed the responsibility of gun and 3D printer manufacturers in preventing the misuse of 3D printed firearm accessories, like machine gun converters.
He emphasized a moral responsibility rooted in the concept of “Design Against Crime.” This approach entails making products less susceptible to misuse by bad actors when they are brought to market. For example, photocopiers can detect attempts to replicate currency, distorting the image to prevent counterfeiting. He suggests that both firearm and 3D printer manufacturers should “strongly consider” similar crime-proofing measures.
However, he noted that changes are unlikely to occur voluntarily, stating that legal action would be necessary to enforce them within firearm and 3D printing circles. Dr. Veilleux-Lepage hasn’t seen “much of a desire by those communities to tackle this issue.”
The complex role of social media and tech companies in managing the spread of content related to homemade firearms was also addressed. These platforms operate beyond geographical boundaries, making enforcement challenging.
Dr. Veilleux-Lepage believes significant political will and investment from these companies are needed to effectively tackle the spread of 3D printed gun files. This policy has already been enacted by Facebook. In 2018, it banned the sharing of 3D printed firearm instructions across news feeds, timelines, private messenger exchanges and Instagram.
Looking to the future, Dr. Veilleux-Lepage believes advances in 3D printing technology will continue to lower the barriers to firearm fabrication, increasing their accessibility. This includes improvements in software, materials, and design techniques, all of which contribute to more user-friendly manufacturing processes.
Dr. Veilleux-Lepage underscored the rapid pace of development in this field. He emphasized the advances seen since the first 3D printed firearm emerged in 2013, and the progress since the FGC-9 in 2020. This ongoing evolution will continue to be driven by a highly engaged online community that shares and refines designs.
To combat the threats posed by this, he emphasized the need for Western countries to move away from their “reactionary state” of modifying outdated firearm legislation. Instead, they must keep pace with the realities of affordable 3D printing technology through new research-informed policy.
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Featured image shows an FGC-9 3D printed gun. Photo via Dr. Yannick Veilleux-Lepage.
