Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, have developed a novel 3D printing technique capable of fabricating ultra-light, structurally complex antennas using a charge-guided multi-material deposition process. The method, called Charge Programmed Deposition (CPD), enables the direct 3D printing of electromagnetic devices with intricate metal-dielectric architectures, eliminating the need for traditional lithographic or subtractive manufacturing steps.
Published in Nature Communications, the study presents CPD as a versatile platform for producing a wide range of antenna types, including transmitarrays, Vivaldi antennas, and horn antennas, using commercially available desktop SLA printers. The technique allows for the integration of high-conductivity metals and various dielectrics within a single build, reducing part count, weight, and manufacturing complexity.
3D printing guided by surface polarity
At the core of the CPD process is a charge-based material programming method. During stereolithographic printing, the researchers assign different charge polarities, positive, negative, or neutral, to various regions of a printed patterned dielectric substrate. This “charge mosaic” determines where metals adhere during selective electroless plating. Only oppositely charged regions attract the metal ions, enabling precise, toolpath-free patterning of conductive traces in three dimensions.
Following printing, the part undergoes a chemical treatment sequence; palladium ions are deposited as a catalyst, then copper is plated onto the charged areas. The process yields smooth, crack-free copper paths with a conductivity of 4.9 × 10⁷ S/m, comparable to annealed copper and well suited for high-frequency applications.
Structural and functional complexity
The researchers demonstrated the method’s flexibility by fabricating a circularly polarized 19 GHz transmitarray antenna featuring three layers of interpenetrating S-ring unit cells. Weighing just 5 grams, the transmitarray achieved a 94% weight reduction compared to an equivalent PCB-based design, while maintaining high directivity and gain.
A horn antenna, also fabricated using CPD, features a septum polarizer and meandered waveguide transition, demonstrating the method’s capability to create complex internal channels. Additional examples included folded miniaturized antennas, fractal geometries, and stretchable designs using elastomers and liquid metal alloys.
To overcome build volume limitations, the team designed a modular tiling strategy for antenna arrays, enabling the assembly of larger aperture systems without performance loss.
Toward scalable, low-cost antenna production
Unlike other multi-material additive methods, CPD does not require multiple printheads, substrate alignment, or high-temperature sintering. Instead, it leverages standard SLA printers with manual resin swapping, making the process both cost-effective and accessible. Materials explored include polymers, polyimide, ceramics, and elastomers, with tailored resin formulations to support charge modulation and copper deposition.
This research significantly lowers the barrier to fabricating custom, high-performance antennas for space-limited or weight-sensitive platforms. CPD enables rapid prototyping, design iteration, and on-demand manufacturing without the material waste and complexity of subtractive methods or multi-step assembly.
Future developments will focus on automating resin handling, expanding material palettes, and integrating other functional coatings, such as magnetic or piezoelectric films, for next-generation electronic systems.
The authors see immediate applications in CubeSats, 6G base stations, and portable or wearable devices, especially where weight, geometry, and performance must be tightly controlled.
Advancements in 3D printed antenna research
As antenna demands evolve, 3D printing continues to emerge as a key enabler of design flexibility and performance improvements. For instance, researchers at the University of Sheffield have developed 3D printed 5G and 6G antennas that can be manufactured faster and more cheaply than current aerials, demonstrating radio frequency performance akin to that of conventionally produced antennas.
Similarly, the US Navy Research Laboratory has utilized 3D printing to fabricate optimized cylindrical antenna arrays, achieving more compact and lightweight designs compared to traditional methods.
These advancements underscore the growing role of 3D printing in producing efficient, cost-effective, and customizable antenna solutions for various applications.
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Featured image shows CPD-printed horn antenna with integrated polarizer. Image via Nature Communications / UC Berkeley.
