A team from Tel Aviv University and Rafael Advanced Defence Systems has demonstrated the first lithium-ion battery produced entirely through inkjet drop-on-demand (DoD) 3D printing. The study, published in the Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry, shows how the technique enables precise, layer-by-layer printing of a cathode, separator, and anode, resulting in a fully functional cell.
The researchers say their approach could accelerate the development of customized, flexible, and low-cost energy storage systems, moving away from conventional doctor-blade fabrication. By using DoD 3D printing, they were able to deposit ultra-thin layers while overcoming typical limitations on ink viscosity, broadening the range of printable formulations.
Inkjet 3D printing for energy storage
The team developed specialized inks for each component: a lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cathode, a porous PVdF–alumina composite separator, and a graphite anode reinforced with carbon additives. Printing was carried out using a Nordson PICO Pμlse piezoelectric valve system, which dispensed droplets directly onto substrates in a controlled layer-by-layer process. Nozzle sizes varied, 100 µm for electrodes and 500 µm for the more viscous separator ink, enabling clean, distinct layers without intermixing.
Performance comparable to commercial cells
Post-processing and electrochemical testing revealed that each component retained its functional bulk and interfacial properties. The 3D-printed separator exhibited ion transport characteristics on par with commercial Celgard membranes. The graphite anode achieved nearly 93% of its theoretical capacity with a coulombic efficiency of 99.99% over extended cycling.
When assembled into a full cell, the 3D-printed battery displayed stable performance across a range of C-rates from C/20 to C/2, with fast recovery of capacity and voltage plateaus consistent with conventional LFP-based lithium-ion batteries.
Towards printed micro-batteries
According to the authors, drop-on-demand 3D printing could enable new classes of micro-batteries for applications in sensors, medical devices, and flexible electronics. The process also offers compatibility with micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), where fine spatial resolution is crucial.
“Additive manufacturing allows the design of batteries in complex geometries and customized form factors,” the researchers note. “DoD printing provides reliability, speed, and the ability to integrate diverse chemistries into single-step fabrication.”
3D printing for advanced batteries
This work builds on growing interest in using additive manufacturing for next-generation energy storage. Earlier this year, researchers reviewed how shape-conformal batteries can be produced through 3D printing for seamless integration into compact devices.
A broader study has also highlighted how 3D printing is reshaping the production of energy devices across generation, conversion, and storage applications. Most recently, another review examined the role of additive manufacturing in advancing aqueous zinc-ion batteries, underscoring how the technology is driving innovation across multiple chemistries.
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Feature image shows SEM micrographs of the MCMB-printed anode. Image via Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry.
