A comprehensive review from researchers at Seoul National University highlights how additive manufacturing is transforming the design and fabrication of energy technologies. Published in Microsystems & Nanoengineering, the study categorizes recent advances in 3D printed systems for energy generation, conversion, and storage, showing how AM is enabling more efficient, compact, and functional devices across the energy lifecycle.
Conventional energy devices are typically limited by subtractive manufacturing constraints, including restricted material compatibility and limited geometric complexity. According to the study, 3D printing bypasses these limitations by enabling intricate structural control, rapid prototyping, and scalable fabrication at the micro and nanoscale. These capabilities are proving essential for the development of high-performance, application-specific energy solutions.
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Bio-inspired breakthroughs in energy generation
For energy generation, researchers have leveraged 3D printing to develop lung-inspired polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) with 30% higher power density and bone-like titanium gas diffusion layers that increase performance by 15%. In solar applications, silver mesh electrodes fabricated via direct ink writing (DIW) have achieved power conversion efficiencies of 26.47%, while origami-inspired FDM-printed designs support flexible, wearable photovoltaics.
Fuel cells, water-splitting systems, and microbial fuel cells are also benefiting from 3D printed porous architectures, which offer improved mass transport and increased active surface areas. According to the authors, these structural optimizations are directly responsible for measurable boosts in voltage, efficiency, and scalability.
Energy conversion devices go 3D
Additive manufacturing is driving innovations in piezoelectric, triboelectric, and thermoelectric systems. Using digital light processing (DLP), researchers fabricated piezoelectric metamaterials with programmable anisotropic responses, eliminating the need for post-printing poling. Hierarchical structures fabricated via FDM and DIW have enabled triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) with significantly enhanced performance.
For thermoelectric generators (TEGs), conformal 3D printed shapes enable better thermal contact with curved surfaces, enhancing energy harvesting from sources like exhaust pipes or the human body. The study highlights core-shell microlattices and CNT-based architectures with figure-of-merit (ZT) values reaching 1.09, outperforming many conventionally fabricated TEGs.
Storage solutions with structural smarts
In the storage domain, 3D printed batteries and supercapacitors are achieving significant gains. DIW and DLP techniques have enabled porous electrode architectures, with SLA enabling electrode designs reaching areal capacities of up to 3.6 Ah/g. Micro-lattice Zn anodes offer dendrite-free performance, and supercapacitors fabricated with graphene aerogels and DLP-printed octet-truss electrodes have reached areal capacitances of 207.9 F/cm². These structures also provide enhanced mechanical resilience.
Some battery systems are even designed as load-bearing components, signaling a shift toward multifunctional power sources integrated directly into structural elements.
Challenges remain, but momentum builds
Key challenges include developing high-performance printable materials, enhancing mechanical robustness, improving multi-material and hybrid printing capabilities, and scaling up production. The authors note the dominance of FDM, DIW, and DLP techniques due to their accessibility and flexibility, but emphasize that broader adoption will require expanding the range of printable materials and refining manufacturing methods.
The researchers emphasize the potential of hybrid printing systems that combine multiple AM methods to fabricate fully integrated energy devices.
Cutting-edge 3D printing methods accelerating energy innovation
Emerging 3D printing technologies are rapidly expanding what’s possible for fabricating next-generation energy devices. Volumetric 3D printing, including MEMS-based holographic systems, enables near-instant fabrication of complex geometries ideal for fuel cells and microfluidics.
Pellet-based extrusion is gaining traction for cost-effective, large-scale part production, particularly relevant for battery housings or supercapacitor substrates. At the microstructure level, blended FDM (b-FDM) allows precise control over material gradients, enabling energy devices with tailored electrical and thermal properties.
Meanwhile, advancements in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), such as ADDiTEC’s closed-powder Fusion S system, are enhancing the quality and safety of printing high-performance metals used in hydrogen fuel cells and thermal energy systems.
These innovations highlight how evolving AM techniques are unlocking new frontiers in energy research and industrial sustainability.
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Featured image shows 3D printed battery as a structural element. Image via Son et al., Microsystems & Nanoengineering.
