Your seat at the Additive Manufacturing Advantage awaits! Register today for AMA: Healthcare 2025.
A study by Chemical Insights Research Institute (CIRI) and the Khaos Foundation found that classroom 3D printers can increase indoor pollutants, but health risks remain low with low-emitting equipment.
Published in Building and Environment, the study examined how fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printers used in schools affect indoor air quality. These printers melt thermoplastic filaments like polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), releasing particulate matter (PM) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the air.
Researchers conducted air monitoring in K-12 schools and a university (likely Georgia State University per the acknowledgments), focusing on classrooms that were not designed for emission-producing equipment.
Using particle sizers and gas-chromatography instruments, they measured air quality before, during, and after printing sessions and compared results with control rooms where no printers were present.
How 3D printing affects air quality
Led by Dr. Qian Zhang from CIRI, the findings showed that printing temporarily raised levels of ultrafine particles (UFPs), those smaller than 100 nm, but the increases were short-lived. Larger particles, such as PM2.5 and PM10, did not show significant changes.
While 3D printing, the total number of airborne particles sometimes increased by one- to four-fold, depending on the type of filament and the ventilation in the room. Once printing stopped, concentrations generally returned to background levels.
ABS materials produced slightly higher PM2.5 levels, while PLA generated more ultrafine particles. Even with these increases, overall PM values remained well below both U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and World Health Organization air-quality standards. The study also noted that normal classroom activities, such as movement or cleaning, could raise particle levels independently of 3D printing.
Across all sites, more than 200 VOCs were detected, varying by 3D printer model, filament type, and room conditions. Commonly identified chemicals included acetaldehyde, toluene, nonanal, octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4), and styrene, all previously linked to 3D printing emissions. Other compounds, such as siloxanes and alcohols, were traced to cleaning agents and personal care products used in the classrooms.
Total VOC (TVOC) levels sometimes doubled during printing but generally declined soon after printers were switched off. For most scenarios, concentrations of chemicals of concern stayed below recognized health-based reference levels. Formaldehyde was the only substance that exceeded some guidelines in two schools, and the authors observed that it likely originated from building materials or other indoor sources rather than from the printers alone.
Field measurements were compared with controlled chamber experiments conducted under the ANSI/CAN/UL 2904 emission standard. Between 9% and 41% of the VOCs found in classrooms matched those identified in the chamber tests, suggesting that real-world conditions introduce additional variables, including ventilation differences and background chemical sources.
Source analysis revealed that 3D printing accounted for roughly one-third to more than half of total VOC concentrations in printer rooms. When only chemicals of concern were considered, 3D printing contributed up to 79%, primarily aldehydes, hydrocarbons, and siloxanes. Despite their presence, concentrations were still low compared with health-based benchmarks.
The study highlighted the importance of ventilation and regular maintenance of air-cleaning systems. Some classrooms operated portable air cleaners continuously, but filter replacements were not always scheduled or documented, which could limit their effectiveness.
Overall, the researchers concluded that normal use of one or two certified low-emitting 3D printers in classrooms is unlikely to pose significant health risks. However, they emphasized that air quality depends on room size, ventilation rate, and daily activities.
Continued monitoring and adherence to established emission standards are recommended to maintain safe indoor environments for students and teachers.
Mitigating emissions in 3D printing
Because 3D printing involves processes like melting and sintering, one key health and safety issue is the release of airborne pollutants, which can vary greatly in form, size, and odor.
Consequently, portable fume extraction systems manufacturer BOFA International built a range of products tailored for the AM industry to help minimize exposure to harmful emissions generated during 3D printing.
In 2021, the company entered a distribution agreement with France-based 3D printer supplier Atome3D to provide its 3D PrintPRO air filtration units. These systems can be incorporated into third-party 3D printers to trap potentially hazardous fumes and particles produced during operation.
Elsewhere, the potential health risks of UFPs and VOCs have been widely recognized, with organizations such as the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) issuing guidance materials specifically addressing 3D printing safety.
In another news, researchers from Seoul National University also examined how nozzle temperature influences the release of hazardous particles during FFF printing. Similarly, scientists at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) explored VOC emissions during FFF processes, focusing on composite materials such as carbon fiber-reinforced ABS.
Help choose the 2025 3D Printing Industry Awards winners – sign up for the Expert Committee now!
To stay up to date with the latest 3D printing news, don’t forget to subscribe to the 3D Printing Industry newsletter or follow us on LinkedIn.
While you’re here, why not subscribe to our Youtube channel? Featuring discussion, debriefs, video shorts, and webinar replays.
Featured image shows summary of sampling methods used in field study (A) and chamber study (B). Colors indicate different printer operation stages. Image via Buildings and Environment / CIRI.
