A scoping review led by Universidad de Las Américas in Ecuador, Universidad Central del Ecuador, and the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería y Tecnología in Spain has detailed the state of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies in construction. Published on ScienceDirect, the study assessed 52 peer-reviewed papers drawn from Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, IEEE Xplore, Taylor & Francis, and ProQuest. Using PRISMA methodology and focusing on the last decade of publications, the selection process achieved 91.9% evaluator agreement, with a Cohen’s Kappa coefficient of 0.463. The review examines AM system configurations, material capabilities, and implementation challenges, and evaluates environmental impacts against conventional construction.
Large-scale 3D printing for construction uses gantry frameworks, robotic arms, or hybrid systems to deposit concrete, geopolymers, clay, metals, or foams layer by layer. These processes can reduce construction times by 50–80% and material use by up to 60%. Gantry-based printers offer stable large-volume production but limited flexibility, while robotic arm systems enable complex geometries with adaptable positioning. Hybrid approaches such as gantry-robotic arm combinations expand reach and form variety. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), applied to stainless steel, titanium, nickel alloys, and maraging steels, serves high-strength structural roles. Powder bed fusion carries high energy and post-processing demands; construction research and deployments in the review center on extrusion, with metallic routes showing less process variety. Directed energy deposition, at 133 megajoules per kilogram, is used for structural metal parts, while fused deposition modeling, at 0.36–63 MJ/kg, is suited for polymer and composite elements. Binder jetting processes, although less energy-intensive, incur environmental costs from specialty binders.
Manufacturers are applying these systems in diverse ways. ICON, a U.S. developer of concrete 3D printing systems, deployed its Vulcan II system in Mexico to build affordable housing, cutting project times and costs. Italian firm WASP, specializing in sustainable architectural AM, created the TECLA project with its Crane WASP platform, processing local clay, sand, and natural additives into recyclable, dome-shaped homes inspired by beehives. In France, the Yhnova project by Nantes University used BatiPrint3D to sequentially print foam insulation and concrete, producing a Y-shaped house with integrated structural and thermal properties. COBOD International of Denmark, known for modular gantry systems, includes interchangeable nozzles and material adaptability for multi-storey construction. WINSUN in China uses recycled aggregates in modular builds, while HUASHANG TENGDA applied reinforced Class C30 concrete for high-load walls and multi-floor structures. Apis Cor, operating in compact gantry-robotic arm hybrids, emphasizes portability and print accuracy.
The review’s comparative data show how print speed, build volume, and material range vary by manufacturer. COBOD’s BOD2 achieves up to 1,000 mm/s across spans of 14.6 × 50.5 × 8.1 m. ICON’s Vulcan II, printing at 150 mm/s, specializes in modular Lavacrete structures but is limited in roof fabrication. WASP’s Big Delta can process earth-based mortars and geopolymers, reaching heights of 12 m, while Black Buffalo’s gantry units focus on vertical scale with advanced concrete blends. SQ4D integrates its patented ARCS process for rapid large-volume prints, and CyBe Construction manufactures multiple gantry and robotic arm models, each tailored for mortar-based builds of varying size and mobility.
Material choice directly affects mechanical performance and environmental impact. Cementitious mixes, particularly Portland cement and geopolymers, dominate due to compressive strength, durability, and compatibility with reinforcement. Geopolymers can improve corrosion resistance and reduce embodied carbon. WAAM-fabricated metals provide high tensile and compressive strength with ductility but add weight and require specialized processing. Natural and modified clays provide thermal stability and low cost, with expanded clay offering insulation through its porous structure. Polymers such as PLA, ABS, and reinforced composites are lightweight and corrosion-resistant but often lack fire resistance. Foamed concretes and silicate foams contribute to lightweight wall panels with good thermal insulation but limited load capacity. Mechanical properties in the reviewed studies show how tensile strength, ductility, corrosion resistance, dynamic load performance, and low shrinkage vary by material, influencing structural design.
Environmental analysis connects AM in construction to eight UN Sustainable Development Goals: good health and well-being (3), clean water and sanitation (6), affordable and clean energy (7), decent work and economic growth (8), industry, innovation, and infrastructure (9), sustainable cities and communities (11), responsible consumption and production (12), and climate action (13). Local material sourcing reduces transport emissions, while optimized geometries minimize waste. Incorporating recyclable aggregates, geopolymers, or biodegradable polymers aligns AM with circular economy principles.
Technical constraints remain substantial. Interlayer cohesion, thermal insulation for extreme climates, seismic resistance, and the controlled integration of steel or textile reinforcements need further development. Spray-based deposition permits synchronous insertion of rod reinforcements and improves interlayer bond strength via high-pressure application. Dual-extrusion systems enable synchronized reinforcing welding with concrete printing to raise throughput and strength. Porous structure design for improved fluid exchange, optimization of internal lattice patterns, and real-time curing control are highlighted as key R&D priorities. Large-format printers present transport and setup challenges, while regulatory frameworks lag behind technological capabilities, leaving building codes and safety protocols underdeveloped. The CONPrint3D system integrates BIM-driven planning and lateral shaping elements to place fresh concrete with geometric precision. A tower-crane-based concept uses a pendulum extruder stabilized by propellers, with deep reinforcement learning for trajectory control; results so far are simulation-based.
Future development is expected to integrate robotics, artificial intelligence, and building information modeling for end-to-end digital construction workflows. Space-based applications, such as printing with lunar regolith in low-gravity environments, are under investigation for off-Earth settlements. Advances in high-performance cementitious materials, composite formulations, and multi-material printing systems could expand AM’s role in high-rise construction and civil infrastructure. The authors conclude that while AM already delivers measurable efficiency and sustainability gains, its widespread adoption will depend on addressing these technical, regulatory, and logistical barriers through coordinated industry and policy action.
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Featured image shows Additive manufacturing solutions have impacted various regions of the world, with a considerable number of projects carried out in 2022. Image via ScienceDirect.
